Early+Latin+America

__**ESPIRIT Spanish Colonies**__


 * E**: Main Idea: Europe of Portuguese, English, Spanish, Dutch, and French sought for economical growth and social mobility, lead to many expeditions to the new world in 15th and 16th.Coerce labor used for mining and crop of precious metals
 * __Coerced labor were used for plantations for new crops and mine deposits of precious metals silver/gold and diamonds.__
 * The colonial systems of Latin America became placed in the 1520s to 1530s in places like Brazil of a sugar plantation economy and the Caribbean with the importance of slavery.
 * There was a demographic catastrophe of incredible proportions as disease, war, and mistreatment caused the loss of many millions of individuals.
 * In one example, the population of central Mexico during the sixteenth century fell from 25 million to less than two million.
 * The Spanish reacted by concentrating Indians in towns and seizing their lands.
 * The harshness of encomiendas contributed to Indian population decline. Most encomiendas disappeared by the 1620s.
 * Despite the disruptions, Indian culture remained resilient and modified Spanish forms to Indian ways.
 * More than 80% of Spanish America's population was engaged in agriculture and ranching, but mining was the essential activity.
 * __Until the eighteenth century, the Spanish maritime commercial system was organized around the exchange of New World precious metals, especially silver, for European manufactured goods.__
 * The exchange made Latin America a dependent part of the world system.
 * The major silver mines opened in Mexico and Peru during the middle of the sixteenth century.
 * Potosí in Bolivia was the largest mine, and Zacatecas in Mexico, resulted in the creation of wealthy urban centers.
 * The industry, dependent on a supply of food and other materials for workers, was a stimulus for the general economy.
 * __Spanish America remained an agricultural economy. Large sedentary Indian populations continued traditional patterns.__
 * Spanish rural estates (**haciendas**) emerged.
 * Silver ruled the commercial system. All trade was reserved for Spaniards and was funneled through Seville and Cádiz. A board of trade controlled commerce with the Indies. The board often worked with a merchant guild (**consulado**) in Seville that had extensive rights over American trade.


 * S**: Main idea: The Iberian societies greatly influenced American life.
 * __Portuguese and the Spanish were heavily urban, peasants often lived in small center.__
 * Commoner and lower class of the Europe became nobles of the new world, holding Indian-worked estates called encomiendas. It lead to slavery. Families became widely patriarchal
 * __In the second phrase from 1570 to 1700 the colonial and social institutions and society took definite forms.__
 * __In the last phrase lead to the planting of a sense of dissatisfaction and revolt during the 18th century.__
 * Immigration, commerce, and exploitation of native population were linked to it, destroying the societies of Native Americans and transformed others like Mexico and Peru.
 * Spanish women and African slaves among the earlier arrivals, they made the shift of conquest to settlement.
 * Some clerics and administrators like **Bartolome de las Casas** tried to stop the abuse towards Indans. (Many Indians died)
 * Nobility class of american started to lost their power.


 * P**: Main Idea: Portugal and Castile became politically centralized dependent on a bureaucracy of trained judges and lawyers.
 * State and the Catholic Church/ religion were tied together.
 * During conquest in from 1492 to 1570 the main lines of the economy and administration was set out.
 * In the two continents and millions of people became under European control.
 * Royal administration led to the removal of control of Columbus and his family.
 * Laws were incorporated of American and Spanish ideas enforced from an administrative institutions: the governorship. the treasury office, and the royal court of appeals staffed by professional magistrates.
 * Spanish legalism became apart of the institutional transfer.
 * The conquest process was regulated by agreements concluded between leaders and their government.
 * Leaders received authority in return for promises of sharing spoils with the crown.
 * The men joining expeditions received shares of the spoils. Most of the conquerors were not professional soldiers.
 * __The Spanish maintained Indian institutions that served their goals.__
 * In Mexico and Peru, the traditional nobility, under Spanish authority, presided over taxation and labor demands.
 * Enslavement of Indians, except in warfare, was prohibited by the middle of the sixteenth century.
 * In place of slavery, the government awarded encomiendas (land grants) to conquerors who used their Indians as a source of labor and taxes.
 * The state continued to extract labor and taxes from Indians, who worked in mines and other state projects.
 * The crown owned all subsoil rights; private individuals worked the mines at their expense in return for giving the crown one fifth of production.
 * The government had a monopoly on the mercury used.
 * The haciendas became the basis of wealth and power for a local aristocracy.
 * The wealth in silver that went to Spain was used for state expenses and for manufactured goods for the Americas.
 * Much of the silver left Spain and contributed to general European inflation.
 * Spain's wealth depended more on taxes than on American silver, although the prospect of its continuing import stimulated unwise government spending.
 * __The Spanish empire became a bureaucratic system built on a juridical core of lawyers who had both legislative and administrative authority.__
 * The king ruled from Spain through the **Council of Indies**; in the Americas there were viceroyalties based in Mexico City and Lima.
 * The **viceroys**, high-ranking nobles, represented the king and had extensive legislative, military, and judicial powers.
 * The **viceroyalties** were divided into ten divisions run by royal magistrates.
 * At the local level, other magistrates, often accused of corruption, managed tax and labor service regulations.


 * I**: Main Idea: There was an exchange of ideas among Western and indigenous culture. Lead to the integration of a distinctive civilization formed. Indian culture influenced many other later societies.
 * __The Spaniards and Portuguese societies of long contract with people of other faiths and cultures of well-developed warfare and conquest practices. The Native Americans modified these traditions and by 1570s much of the Americans had been brought under Iberian control.__
 * During this time Iberian sought for political unity lead by **Ferdinand of Argon** and his wife **Isabella of Castile** expelling the Jewish population and reconquered the Muslim population.
 * Portuguese and Spanish merchants had a lot of experience with the slave trade in Africa and highly commercialized agriculture leading to plantation agriculture of earlier colonies in Atlantic islands since 1415.
 * __The **Caribbean** experienced modeled after the Spanish actions, establishing colonies like **Hispaniola** in 1493 distributed with Indian labors.__
 * The European destroyed the population of the indigenousness lands with pressures like gold hunting and diseases, making it into colonies. The **encomendero** holder of an encomienda would tax the workers too.
 * Havana, san Juan, and Santo Domingo guarded the commercial life of Spain.
 * **The Treaty of Tordesillas** (1494) between Spain and Portugal regularized their conflicting claims by drawing a north-south line around the earth; the eastern regions belonged to Portugal, the western to Spain. All of the Americas, except Brazil, went to Spain. Indians and many Europeans did not accept the decisions.


 * R**: With Expeditions, the Spanish lead for the spread of religion. State and church (politics and religion) were associated.
 * The Spanish conquest and treatment of Indians raised significant philosophical and moral issues.
 * The Church built cathedrals and universities.
 * Many answered that Indians were not fully human and were destined to serve Europeans.
 * __Converting Indians to Christianity was a necessary duty.__
 * Sovereignty over the Spanish empire rested with the crown, based on a papal grant awarding the Indies to Castile in return for its bringing the lands into the Christian community.
 * The clergy performed both secular and religious functions. They converted Indians and established Christian villages.


 * I**: **Main Idea**: The formal institutional structure of the church eventually prevailed.
 * Mining techniques were European.
 * The Spaniards adapted Iberian-style cites into New World conditions with central plazas of state and church buildings.
 * __The Spanish applied roman styles.__
 * The church profoundly influenced colonial cultural and intellectual life through architecture, printing, schools, and universities
 * Some defended Indian rights and studied their culture.
 * The state nominated church officials, they tended to support state policies.


 * T: Main idea:** Technology were for improvement of mining and agriculture. It also added to the improvement of expeditions.
 * The discovery of extensive mercury deposits was vital for silver extraction.
 * Sheep raising led to the formation of small textile sweatshops worked by Indian women.
 * __Latin America became self-sufficient in foodstuffs and material goods, requiring from Europe only luxury items.__
 * Using Indian and mixed-ancestry workers, they produced grains, grapes, and livestock primarily for consumers in the Americas.
 * To protect their silver fleets from rivals and pirates, the Spanish organized a convoy system made possible by the development of heavily armed galleons. Galleons also transported Chinese products from the Philippines to Mexico.
 * Strongly fortified Caribbean ports provided shelter for the ships

Printed it and marked it up so maybe scan it on. Main Idea On the Reasons for Just War among the Indians: Supulveda believes that the native Americans were barbaric, uncivilized, and uneducated and felt they had the right conquest and control them. New Main Idea: The Spanish conquered and controlled of native indigenous people, believing these actions were justified since they were superior in all aspects of life.

Supulveda felt that the people of European were justified to that over the people of the New world. He develops a biases towards the natives, he has never been to the new world and and only has stayed in Europe. He finds that "the perfect should command and rule over the imperfect, the excellent over the opposite." The Europeans felt superior by being more well developed in culture, religion, politically, and warfare to the natives. The native people were barbaric, uncivilized, and uneducated.The Spanish with liberal education are worth of administrating the commonwealth. (as a side note) He fell that a nations should not be judged by the detested and depraved individuals but by its noble men and public customs. A nation should be pristine and frugal.The Spanish felt that they were racially/ ethically superior since they weathered the Black Death the best out of another nations/people. In war the Spanish easily conquered the natives with a thousands of them and only hundred Spaniards. They had superior weaponry and the natives only fleeted. The law system of these indigenous people was backwards (Not well developed). They had a type of feudal-like system and a tyranny even through Sepulveda approved of the king being chosen by the citizens. The practice of human sacrifice and cannibalism by the natives made the people of Spain think that they believed in the devil, purely evil and immoral. The Spanish felt that it was their job to turn natives into civilized people and turn them Catholics.


 * An excerpt from //In Defense of the Indians// (1550) Bartolomé de las **

Sepulveda felt that the native Americans were dim-witted, barbaric, salvages, immoral, and devil worshiping. The natives practiced human sacrifice and they were cannibalistic for their religious practicing (cult-like). The Spanish being Catholic, it was not a social norm for people to eat people. The natives were seen as demonic/ devil believing and immoral. The natives were salvage-like, uncivilized and barbaric for not wearing clothes and not being properly educated. The Spanish had a proper liberal education making their law superior. The natives had a feudal-like system. The Spanish easily conquered with better weaponry the thousands of natives. Sepulveda sought it gave the Spanish the justification to conquer the natives. Las Casas found the natives were indeed barbaric for their religious practices. Las Casas was appreciative of the natives well defined society and government and reasonable ideology. "[The natives] had properly organized states, wisely ordered by excellent laws, religion, and custom. They cultivated friendship and, bound together in common fellowship, lived in populous cities in which they wisely administered the affairs of both peace and war justly and equitably, truly governed by laws." Las Casas also considers what would happen if Spain conquered the natives. The natives can revolt and not obey orders. Spanish leaders with dispute over distribution of the natives. Sepulveda would only hear of the encounters in the new worlds by explorers, did not experience it for himself. Based on this information, Sepulveda developed his own personal opinions (Very negative). Spanish nationalism. He is not one sided.  Las Casas probably was one would personal explored the new world and saw the greatness of it. Conversion of Catholicism. Natural enslavement.
 * Compare the attitudes of Sepulveda and de las Casas towards native Americans. - What factors account for the differences in POV?**


 * Notes on Brazil **


 * Brazil: The First Plantation Colony**: __Using the help of Native Americans, then African slaves, the Portuguese creates the first great plantation colonies in America with sugar. In the 18th century, with the discovery of gold it opened the interior of Brazil to the expansion of slavery and their settlement.__
 * In 1500 **Pedro Alvares Cabral** lead the first landfall to Brazil in 1500. They had little interest in Brazil except for dyewood trees. Merchants were granted licenses to exploit the dyewood.
 * The pressure of the French competitors, the Portuguese established a new system of settlement in 1532.
 * **Capitaincies** were given to nobles to colonized and development the land. (Had feudal powers but lacked capitalism.) The Native Americans, then African salves were used to establish sugar plantations.
 * A royal capital was created in 1549 at Salvador. Jesuit missionaries were sent, by 1600 indigenous resistance was broken.
 * A string of settlements occured along the coast centered around ports like Salvador and Rio de Janeiro.
 * The plantations were increasingly worked on by African slaves.


 * Sugar and Slavery**:
 * Brazil was the world leading production of sugar
 * The combination of agriculture and industry in the field of sugar lead to the large amounts of capital for machinery and large amounts of labor. Slaves did most of the work.
 * Brazil came on of the first great plantation of a single crop colonies, followed by other European nations in their Caribbean colonies.
 * Brazil's social hierarchy reflected that of its plantation even after the greater diverse. White planter families were linked by marriage as aristocrats that dominated local institutions.
 * At the bottom of the society were slaves, distinguished by color and status as property.
 * There was a growing population of mixed origin people a result of miscegenation- along with poorer whites, free blacks, and free Indians, who served as artisans small farmers, herders, and free labors.
 * Like Spain, Portugal created a bureaucratic structure, integrating colonies with the imperial systems.
 * Governors in each capitaincy acted independently and reported oversea to Lisbon directly.
 * Jesuits with extensive cattle ranches and sugar mills supporting church and school with construction, also a network of missions thousands of Native Americans.
 * The Spanish American bureaucracy's core was of royal officials trained in law.
 * Portuguese included colonies and outposts of Asia, Africa, and Brazil.
 * In the 17th century, Brazil became the predominant Portuguese colony.
 * Brazil's ties were stronger and more dependent to Portugal than Spanish America and Spain.
 * The intellectual life of Brazil was an extension of Portugal, having either universities or printing press.
 * Brazilians seek higher education and government offices


 * Brazil's Age of Gold**
 * From 1580 to 1640, Habsburg kings of Spain ruled Portugal and Brazil. American colonies were susceptible to changes in European politics.
 * In 1630 to 1654, the Dutch seized a portion of northeastern Brazil, controlling sugar production. In the 1680s Dutch, English, and French established plantations of themselves in the Caribbean producing sugar and using slaves. It lead to competition with the rising prices of slaves and fall of sugar prices.
 * Brazil sugar industry lost its dominance, throughout 17th century **Paulistas**, backwoodsmen from Sao Paulo explored the interior, discovering gold in the region that came to be known as **Minas Gerais** in 1695.
 * People rushed to gold and began to have settlements. (5000 immigrants a year)
 * Slaves were also laborers in mines
 * Between 1735 and 1760 the government tightly managed the gold industry to its peak.
 * Brazil became the greatest source of gold in the western world.
 * Gold later diamonds lead to the settlement of interior and the expansion of slavery and disastrous effects on the natives.
 * The government controlled slave trade revitalized coastal agriculture.
 * New ventures in farming and ranching were stimulated from mines. **Rio de Janeiro** became a major port and capital in 1763. (near mines)
 * Societal hierarchy were still based on color.
 * Gold and diamonds didn't contribute to Portuguese economic development. Portugal's gain in resources allowed for the import of manufactured goods.


 * Multiracial Societies**
 * __Europeans formed large multi-ethnic societies with the settlement/conquest of Latin America.__
 * Color, status, and occupation hierarchies of Indians, Europeans, and Africans.
 * Mixed people called **castas** were a major of the population in the eighteenth century.


 * The Society of Castas**
 * Miscegenation lead societal development. Indian women suffered sexual exploitation from Europeans. The crown sponsored marriages having few European women. with many mixed marriages.
 * Mestizo population possessed higher status than Indians. A similar process occurred in colonies with large African slave population.
 * Race and place of birth were new social distinctions of American reality. Europeans were at the top and African slaves and Indians were the bottom. Mestizos were intermediate categories.
 * Mixed-origin people had restrictions but socialmobility existed. Distinctions grew between Spaniards **peninsulares** (Spain) and **creole** (New World). Creole dominated local economies and developed a strong sense of identity, contributing to independence movements.
 * Whole societies remained a subject to Iberian patriarchal forms.
 * Upper-class women were confined to the home, lower class women participated in economu but women were under male authority.


 * The Eighteenth Century Reforms**
 * In the eighteenth century new demographics and economic trends were forced to change and intellectual ferment were shared between Spain and Portugal.
 * European population growth and colonies had new importance from 18th century wars.
 * Spanish and Portuguese empires were revived, having long-term consequences.


 * The Shifting Balance of Politics and Trade**
 * By the 18th century, The Spanish colonies need a major reform.
 * Poor rulers, foreign wars, internal civil and economic problems lead Spain to be weak.
 * In the 17th century, France, Britain, and Holland seized the Caribbean islands and created their own colonies. They became great revivals.
 * Silver flow dropped and colonies were increasingly self-sufficient when Spanish mercantile and political systems declined.
 * The government was corrupt and local aristocrats took control of their region.
 * Crisis occurred in 1701, international war was caused by disputes of Spanish royal succession.
 * The **Treaty of Utrecht** ended the war and opened the colonies for foreign trade. The Bourbon family was recognized as the rulers of Spain.


 * The Bourbon Reforms**
 * Charles III instituted military reforms, administrative, and fiscal to create a rational, planned, stronger government in Spain.
 * In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish empire, but the church remained ally of the regime.
 * Taxation was reformed, the introduction of a French bureaucratic modeled-system, and ports were opened to less restricted trade by Spanish merchants.
 * In Rio de la Plata and Granada, new viceroyalties provided better defense and administration.
 * Broad general reforms were given under the authority of **Jose de Galvez**.
 * Upper bureaucratic positions were removed for Creoles. The French **intendancy system** gave Spanish officials more efficient rule.
 * Spanish was involved in the Anglo-French and the Seven years war, Allie to France. The English seized Florida and Havana. This caused military reforms.
 * California was settled and the frontiers were defended and expanded. More troops in the New world and Creole militias were formed.
 * The government actively controlled the economy. State monopolies were founded and its companies opened regions of development. Caribbean commerce was expanded from liberal trade regulations.
 * Cuba was a full plantation colony. Buenos Aries economy of Beef and hides were rapidly growing.
 * Local industries were damaged from the more open trade.
 * Technology was improved from new discoveries from mining revival.
 * Bourbon revitalized the empire but stimulated the growth of dissatisfaction among colonial elites.


 * Pombal and Brazil**
 * From 1755 to 1776 **Marquis of Pombal** directed Portuguese affairs.
 * He wanted to strengthen Portuguese economy and lessen the dependence on England with regards to the flow of gold to London.
 * Pombal suppressed oppositions to his policies, the Jesuits expelled.
 * Reform of Brazilian administrators ended lax and corrupt practices.
 * The formation of monopoly companies stimulated agriculture.
 * New regions like the Amazon territory flourished. Rio de Janiro became capital.
 * Pombal only abolished slavery in Portugal. Indians were removed from missionary control and mixed marriages were encouraged to increase population growth.
 * The societies had minimal effects from the reforms, colonies were still slave based.
 * Trade balance first improved but it suffered from the low demand of Brazilian products.


 * Reforms, Reactions, and Revolts**
 * In the mid 18th century, American Iberian colonies shared world growth in population and productive capacity. They had a boomed in the last years of the century.
 * Rebellions were produced from the reformed disrupting old power patterns. The **Comunero Revolt** occurred in New Granada in 1781.
 * **Tupac Amaru** rising and broke out among Peruvian Indians. Brazil escaping serious disturbances.
 * The movements were different in social bases, demonstrating an increase in local dissatisfaction with imperial policies.
 * Sharp social colonial divisions hindered effective revolutionary actions until Spain and Portugal were in political and social turmoil.


 * Global Connection: Latin American Civilization and the World Context**
 * Portugal's and Spain's large colonies provided an expanding world economy.
 * European rivals benefited directly from Iberian colonial trade with weaker internal situations in the 18th century.
 * Cultures were transferred from Spain and Portugal to America, recreating Iberian life modified by local influence.
 * The surviving Indian population adapted to colonial situation and distinctive multi-ethnic and multiracial societies emerged, mixing culture.
 * African culture prevailed in parts with slavery. Latin American had distinctions from the West. Latin products remained at a demand in the world markets, it maintained a society with economic life dependent in outside factors.